Biographies Online

Background and youth

Theodosius was born in the province of Gallaecia in northwestern Spain. His father was to become the general Flavius Theodosius; his mother's name is unknown. His grandparents, like his parents, were probably already Christians. Theodosius, who grew up in Spain, did not receive an extensive education but was intellectually open-minded and acquired a special interest in the study of history.

While on his father's staff, he participated in his campaigns against the Picts and Scots in Britain in 368–369, against the Alemanni in Gaul in 370, and against the Sarmatians in the Balkans in 372–373. As a military commander in Moesia, a Roman province on the lower Danube, he defeated the Sarmatians in 374. When his father was sentenced to death and executed as a result of political intrigues by enemies at court, Theodosius withdrew to his Spanish estates. At the end of 376, he married Aelia Flacilla, also a Spaniard. His first son, the future emperor Arcadius, was born in 377, and his daughter Pulcheria in 378.

Immediately after the catastrophic defeat of the emperor Valens, who perished at the hands of the Visigoths and other barbarians on Aug. 9, 378, near Adrianople, the emperor Gratian unexpectedly summoned Theodosius to his court. When Theodosius had once again proved his military ability by a victory over the Sarmatians, Gratian proclaimed him co-emperor on Jan. 19, 379. His dominion was to be the eastern part of the empire, including the provinces of Dacia (present-day Romania) and Macedonia, which had been especially infiltrated by barbarians in the preceding few years.

Early years as emperor

In 379 and 380 Theodosius resided chiefly in Thessalonica. He sought first to rebuild the army, the discipline of which was considerably impaired, and to consolidate Rome's position on the Balkan peninsula. Military unpreparedness could not be overcome by conscription alone, which applied only to certain classes. Theodosius therefore directed that large numbers of Teutons, who had been barred from military service, be accepted by the army. By 379, however, when foreigners had already intermingled extensively with the rest of the army, both among the troops and in all ranks of the officer corps, Theodosius did no more than many of his predecessors to encourage this process. In contrast to the West, in Theodosius' provinces both Romans and Teutons were among the leading generals.

Recognizing that the barbarians, who had invaded the provinces as early as 375, could no longer be expelled by force and that he could count on Gratian for only limited assistance, Theodosius sought new possibilities for coexistence. This resulted in the friendly reception of the Visigoth Athanaric in 381 and the conclusion of a treaty of alliance, or foedus, with the main body of the Visigoths in the fall of 382. The Goths, who pledged themselves to lending military assistance, were assigned territory for settlement between the lower Danube and the Balkan mountains. Under this novel arrangement, an entire people was settled on imperial soil while retaining its autonomy. Theodosius may have hoped that the Goths would become integrated, as had a group of Goths who in c. 350 had settled near Nicopolis in Moesia; their leader, Bishop Ulfilas, undertook missionary work among the parties to the foedus of 382.

Some historians have regarded Theodosius as biassed in favour of the Goths. He has even been accused of having contributed decisively, through the treaty of 382, to the downfall of Rome. Yet, it should be noted that the policy of that treaty, which was undertaken in the justified expectation of raising Roman military strength and recultivating tracts of wasteland, by no means became customary. Instead, the Emperor took strict measures against further invasions by Teutonic bands and did not permit any doubts to arise as to Roman claims of superiority over the barbarians.

Theodosius' situation was complicated by the sharp antagonism that arose around 379 between disciples of the Nicene Creed (according to which Jesus Christ is of the same substance as God the Father) and several other Christian groups in his part of the empire. Theodosius himself, the first emperor who did not assume the title of pontifex maximus (supreme guardian of the old Roman cults), believed in the Nicene Creed, despite his Baptism only after a serious illness in the fall of 380.

Out of political as well as religious motives, he energetically undertook to bring about unity of faith within the empire. His position was improved by the fact that during 379 the followers of the Nicene Creed gained ground, whereupon Theodosius on Feb. 28, 380, without consulting the ecclesiastical authorities, issued an edict prescribing a creed that was to be binding on all subjects. Only persons who believed in the consubstantiality of God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit were henceforth to be considered Catholic Christians, a designation that here appears for the first time in a document.

There is no doubt that the principle of religious intolerance was proclaimed in this edict. When assessing the edict, however—which should not be viewed simply as an isolated measure—it must be remembered that to the Christians Theodosius was emperor by the grace of God. While thus committed to defend the true faith, he by no means carried out his stated intention by force. The creed, prescribed in 380, was again defined at the beginning of 381 and ecclesiastically sanctioned, as it were, by a church council summoned to Constantinople by Theodosius in the summer of 381. That gathering is considered the second ecumenical council.

The Symbolum Nicaeno-Constantinopolitanum (i.e., the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed [or Symbol]), which is still used by most Christians, along with the ranking by the council fathers of the bishop of Constantinople directly after the bishop of Rome, can thus be traced back to Theodosius. Henceforth, the emperor's authority in matters of faith was to be recognized by the bishops of the East. There is no ground, however, for speaking of a rigidly organized imperial church controlled by the emperor.

The period when Theodosius stayed mainly in Constantinople, dating from the end of 380 to 387, is that to which most of his measures to improve the capital may be attributed. The plan for the Forum Tauri, the largest public square known in antiquity, designed after the model of Trajan's Forum in Rome, is outstanding. It is unclear, however, to what extent the Emperor encouraged the flowering of art and literature in his time.

The middle years

In 383, Maximus, a Spaniard who had been proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain, asserted himself as ruler in the Western provinces (praefectura Galliarum). Suspicions that Theodosius was in collusion with the usurper and thus implicated in the death of Emperor Gratian in August 383 are unfounded. Theodosius, who had to acknowledge the sovereignty of Gratian's stepbrother Valentinian II, born in 371 and the nominal ruler in Italy since the end of 375, could not interfere with Maximus, for he lacked both sufficient military strength and secure borders. Yet, when Maximus invaded Italy in 387 and Valentinian was forced to flee to Thessalonica, Theodosius soon decided upon countermeasures. His decision was perhaps hastened through the influence of Valentinian's mother, whose daughter Galla he had married at the end of 387, having been a widower since 386.

Theodosius' position by that time had become stronger. Long-standing negotiations with the Persians over the division of power in Armenia had resulted in a treaty that was to become the basis for a long period of peace on the eastern border. Having ordered one army division from Egypt to Africa and sent Valentinian with a fleet to Italy, Theodosius set out in the spring of 388 with the main body of troops to move against Maximus' army, which had invaded Pannonia in the Balkans. By July the enemy was defeated. When Maximus surrendered at the end of August he was branded as a usurper, but his followers were generally treated with leniency.

In the same year, Theodosius again relinquished the West to his co-emperor Valentinian but secured his own influence by placing the Frankish general Arbogast, a man he trusted, at Valentinian's side as principal adviser. By remaining in Italy until the spring of 391, where he resided mostly in Milan, Theodosius emphasized his claim to supreme authority throughout the empire. In 389 he visited Rome, where, accompanied by his four-year-old son Honorius, he made a triumphant entry.

In Milan, Theodosius found in Bishop Ambrose an ecclesiastic who was intent upon cooperating effectively with the Emperor and even upon forming a friendship with him, although Ambrose pointed out to Theodosius the limits of the power of temporal rulers more clearly than had others. A conflict had already arisen between them in 388 over Theodosius' punishment of orthodox fanatics who had set fire to a synagogue and to the shrine of a sect. As a devout Christian, Theodosius finally acceded to the Bishop's wishes in the matter but took pains to make him understand that he was not willing to grant the Bishop greater influence in affairs of government.

A new conflict arose in 390 when, following the murder of one of his generals in Thessalonica, Theodosius issued an order for brutal retaliation. It was rescinded too late, so that a horrible massacre resulted among the population there. Ambrose had the Emperor's action condemned in a church council and bade him do public penance. After a prolonged hesitation, Theodosius complied with the order and was readmitted to communion at Christmas 390.

His penance should not be construed as a victory of the church over the Emperor but only as a demonstration of the power of atonement over the penitent sinner. The claims that arose in future centuries that the church had been placed above the temporal power derived not from Theodosius' act of penance but only from the myth generated by it. Although Theodosius had gained an important ally in Ambrose, he continued intent on preserving the emperor's authority in the face of Ambrose and other bishops.

While maintaining an entirely friendly attitude toward the church, Theodosius still took care in his legislation to see that the material interests of the state were sacrificed only to a very limited extent to church or clergy. In addition, Theodosius decided to enforce more strongly against the pagans the religious policy he had pursued since 379. In February 391 he prohibited sacrifices and the visiting of temples. Up to that time, he had basically tolerated the pagans and had entrusted adherents of the old cults with the highest offices.

Quarrels between his second wife, Galla, and his son Arcadius, as well as his own view of the eastern capital as the centre of the empire, prompted Theodosius to move his residence back to Constantinople, where he arrived in November 391.